As a guiding principle and chief operational philosophy, we see research methods and statistical analysis as an integrated process reflective of the ancient Kmt principle of "making the complex simple and digestible to the common man and woman" as to place research and statistics within the reach of every university student.  Our purpose at this time is merely to outline our system which we will present in finished book form in the near future.

With a system of procedural guides, computational guides, research design templates, flow charts and process diagrams, SPSS 16.0 procedural steps, and an integrative approach that moves from simplest to more complex, we intend to unfold the research and statistical analysis process as a computerized process. Objective realities, though complex, unfold in history and are recorded and empiricized as factual data, i.e., quantitative and qualitative code.  Researchers capture these processes in their entirety or in snapshot sample form, and thus reflect this objective reality as it unfolds over time in the scientific record via the modus operandi of rigorous individual research studies.  Science, therefore, provides an aggregated and somewhat fragmentary knowledge of the behavior of social phenomena that sometimes accurately corresponds to objective reality.  Given that the complexity of knowledge often rises above elementary human intuition, and exists independent of human descriptive observation, it must be studied systematically using theoretical and methodological procedures reflective of quantitatively and qualitatively synthesized reality. 

With modern advances in computerized systems, IT, and smart software, we believe that systems of research can now interactively bridge the gap between what is and what can be ascertained through scientific study and thus ultimately result in full correspondence of knowledge to reality, and an exhaustive knowledge of the specific object under study, separating and synthesizing the elements, tendencies, connections, and processes as to arrive a resolution to an initial problem statement.   This is essentially a new moment in history and we intend to seize it.

In a systematic process, we isolate and define: (1) research problem/conceptualization, (2) data type, (3) specific research question(s), (4) data matrix, (5) analysis/analyses type, (6) formula/equations, (7) selection of appropriate procedure, (8) application of the procedure (number-crunching), (9) replication in SPSS computerized applications, and finally (10) the interpretation of output.  While the emphasis is not on mathematical calculations, students must be exposes to the mathematical foundations of the statistical concepts covered and will be required to complete some calculations with and without the aid of a computer. Generally, students should exit the text with a fundamental knowledge of the integrative use of research methods and statistics, their underlying mathematical properties and their related computer applications. Equally important is their knowing how and when to use statistics to solve sociological research problems.  This report, then stresses both the conceptual and procedural knowledge (computational algorithms) of statistics and the link between them and computerized applications such as SPSS 16.0.

          This process will be detailed using diagrams, figures, process charts, templates, tables, and computerized flow charts and algorithms. The careful, meticulous, attention to detail at the theoretical stage of statistical analysis provides the foundation for proper us of SPSS 16.0 computerized procedures. In sum, this theme of presenting the statistical research methodology as an unfolding process is centered on lab assignments and a thoroughly prepared lab journal.  In sum, there will be a fundamental assessment of lab assignments with special consideration given to the final lab journal

Nature of Science

Uses observation, Uses data available to all observers, Establishes facts, Seeks relationships, draws inferences, establishes laws of development for a process. Promotes understanding, prediction, control, and change.  Answers fundamental questions with certainty.

Scientific Method

Clarifies the question, States the problem, isolates the hypothesis to be tested, Collects, analyzes, and interprets data, Forms tentative conclusion, Answers the question or retains or rejects the hypothesis, findings, report, final policy document.

Social Research Using the Scientific Method

The Process, Identify concern and clarify problem, Formulate research questions or hypotheses, methods for testing  hypothesis, Collect and analyze data, State findings and draw conclusions, write report

Guiding Principles

Rules of legality, Rules of ethics, Rules of philosophy, Rules of procedure, (appropriation, inquiry, presentation)

Research Differentiation

Practicality

Basic, Applied, Advanced theoretical

Method

Qualitative, Quantitative, Experimental, Nonexperimental, logical method, Ka method

Questions Addressed

Ethnographic, Historical, Descriptive, Correlational, Action, Evaluative, Causal-comparative, Experimental, Sociological, Political, Economic, Technological , Cultural, Moral

II. Common Sources of Data

Observational, Internet, Questionnaire, Interview, Participants, Procedures, Settings, Objects, Records, Documents, Informants

III. Common Procedures in Obtaining Data

Video, Audio, Verbal description, Notation, Recording, Analysis, Questioning, Testing, Measurement

IV. Selected Terminology Regarding Data

Data/ Reliability/Validity

Primary/Participant/Sample population/Discrete

Secondary/Continuous/Independent

Authenticity/Confounding/Intervening

Accuracy/Organism/Extraneous

Research Topics and Research Proposals

General Topic Areas

Labor, technology, race, class, culture, generation, psychology, education, health care, housing, transportation, recreation, government, language, religion, mass media, military, finance, etc./

Topic Selection Criteria

Professional, Mass movement, Historical context, Personal interest, Importance, Newness, Time required, Difficulty, Cost, Ethics

Refinement of Topic

Sizing , Clarifying, Questioning, Stating hypotheses

Research Proposal Contents

Statement of the problem, Significance of the problem, Questions and/or hypotheses, Definitions, Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations, Survey of literature, Procedures, Calendar, Budget

Library Research

Secondary Sources, such as

Journals, Encyclopedia, Yearbooks, Reviews of research, Handbooks of research, Scholarly books, Magazine articles, Newspaper articles

Directories, such as

ERIC Descriptors, CIJE, Dissertation Abstracts, Education Index, Resources in Education, Psychological Abstracts, Books in Print

Primary sources, such as

Journal articles, Conference papers, Dissertations, Monographs, Scholarly books, Technical reports, Digest of Educational Statistics

Computer Assistance, such as

ERIC databases, UnCover, Periodical abstracts, Newspaper abstracts, Other databases

Rapid-read published research to determine

Topic and Purpose/Type of Report, Findings and Conclusion

Status

Group comparison, Relationship

Interpret statistical terms common in each type of report

Status

Mean, median, mode, Standard deviation, Norms, Percentiles

Group Comparison

Chi-square, Difference between means, Analysis of variance, Statistical significance

Relationship

Coefficient of correlation, Statistical significance

Make annotations on summary note cards, to include

Topic and Summary, Complete bibliographical citation

Place information on the summary card to facilitate regrouping, for example

Author(s) names(s) and date, Topic addressed in the report

Guideposts in planning your research

Task 1. State topic, problem, and questions or hypotheses

Task 2. Outline the library search for related information

Task 3. Identify needed data and their probable sources

Task 4. List steps to be carried out in the study

Task 5. Specify procedures and tools for collecting data

Task 6. Forsee how data can best be analyzed and interpreted

Task 7. Anticipate the appropriate report format for you research

The outline for our systematic approach for each stage is as follows:

Problem

Introduction

Background of the problem

Statement of the problem situation

Purpose of the study - include practical outcomes of products

Questions to be answered or objectives to be investigated

Conceptual or substantive assumptions

Rationale and theoretical framework

Delineation of the research problem (explain relationship between variables

Statement of hypothesis

Importance of the study

Definition of terms (conceptual - operational definitions appear in methodology phase)

Scope and delimitation's of the study

Outline of the remainder of the thesis or proposal

Choice of a Research Design

The type of problem to be researched helps determine which research design is the best to use.  For example, if the problem deals with something historical, documentary or historiography research designs would be appropriate; if one wants to study the behavior of children in a classroom setting, a field research design would be used.

In some instances there is not one particular research design that addresses all the dimensions of the research problem.  In such cases research designs can be combined to better address the problem.

RESEARCH DESIGN TEMPLATES
Definition
Purpose
Process
Quantitative Dimension
Qualitative Dimension
Problem Statement
Scientific inquiry Question
Hypothesis
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
Level of Theory
Conceptual/Operational Definitions
Methodological Design
Sampling
Measurement Instruments
Primary Data (Data Collection)
Validity and Reliability
Data Analysis
Making Conclusions
Strengths
Limitations/Weaknesses
Presentation
Ethical Issues
Computer Application

Solving Research Problems[i]
Problem	Approach	Research Techniques
Obtain information under controlled conditions	Test people in a lab or social environment with social controls	Lab experiment simulation
Find out how people behave in public	Watch them	Natural observation
Find out how people behave in private	Ask them to keep diaries	Personal documents
Learn what people think	Ask them	Interview, questionnaire, attitude scale
Learn where people go	Chart their movements	Data mapping
Identify personality traits	Administer standardized test	psychological testing
Identify trends in verbal material	Systematic tabulation	Content analysis
Understand an unusual event	Detailed and lengthy investigation	Case study

Research Designs
Level	1	2	3	4
Research Type	Descriptive	Explanatory (Internal Validity)	Generalization (External Validity)	Basic (Theoretical)
Major Questions	What is happening? What happened in the past?	What is causing it to happen? Why did it happen?	Will the same thing happen under different circumstances?	Is there some underlying principle at work?
Traditional Associated Disciplines	Anthropology History Physical Sciences Sociology	Anthropology Behavioral Sciences History Physical Sciences Psychology Sociology	Behavioral Sciences Physical Sciences Psychology	Behavioral Sciences Physical Sciences Psychology Philosophy
Research Designs	Case Study Content Analysis Ethnography Historiography Needs Assessment Observation Policy Reach Polling Program Evaluation Sociometry Survey Research Tracer Studies	Case Study Comparative Correlational Ethnography Ex-Post Facto Historiography Observation Sociometry Time Series Analysis Tracer Studies	Causal-Comparative Experimental Meta Analysis Multiple Case Study Predictive Quasi-Experimental	ABAB Designs Experimental Meta Analysis Policy Research Time Series Analysis

Steps to Follow When Considering Procedures for Collecting Data

Identify the focus of research

Social behavior, Correlationship/prediction, Present status or events, Innovation, Past status or events, Evaluation , Causation

Decide what data are needed for the selected focus

Descriptions, Statements , Scores, Analyses, Measurements, Rankings, Opinions, Categorizations

Select appropriate data sources

Participants, Records, Procedures, Documents, Settings , Informants, Objects

Decide whether a sample is needed, and if so, what type of sample

Random, Stratified, Cluster, Systemic, Convenience

Select appropriate procedures for data collection

Making notations, Questioning, Describing, Measuring, Analyzing, Testing

Select tools appropriate for collecting the needed data

Marking devices

Tests, Cameras, Surveys, Recorders, Scales, Guides, Measuring devices, Criteria

Foresee the formats into which data will accrue

Detailed notes, Categories, Summary notations, Rankings, Scores, Measurements, Tallies, Analyses, Data, Analysis, Purposes

Types of Data

Quantitative: Mostly numerical, Statistical, Describe and test

• 1. Start out with a hypothesis and then you test it.
• 2. Concepts are in the form of distinct variables.
• 3. Measures are systematically created before data collection, and are standardized.
• 4. Data is in the form of numbers for precise movement.
• 5. Theory largely causal and inductive.
• 6. Procedures are standard and replication is assumed.
• 7. Analysis is done using statistics, tables, charts - how what they say relates to the hypothesis.
• 8. May or may not be informed by theory.
• 9. Artificial setting, sometimes obtrusive.
• 10. Subject and relationships are not of critical importance.
• 11. Context may or may not be a concern. Validity can be questioned. Reliability is usually good.
• 12. Primary data is numbers and words.
• 13. Descriptive, group comparisons, sometimes multi-variate.
• 14. Quantitative research is often assumed to produce more objective data. The researcher is removed from the unfolding of events except that they decide what to collect. Data collection is not dependent on emerging events.
• 15. If program is clearly defined already, use quantitative methods.

Qualitative Research:  Mostly verbal, Logico-inductive, Discover patterns

• 1. Discover the meaning once you are immersed in the data.
• 2. Concepts are in the form of themes, motifs, generalizations, taxonomies, etc.
• 3. Measures are systematically collected before data collection is standardized.
• 4. Data is in the form of words, documents, observations, transcripts, etc.
• 5. Theory is causal or non-causal and inductive or deductive.
• 6. Procedures are particular and replication is assumed.
• 7. Analysis is performed by extracting themes, and generalizations from evidence and organized data to present a clear picture.
• 8. Purpose is description, theory building.
• 9. Concepts are fluid and emergent. Setting is natural, unobtrusive, uncontrolled.
• 10. Subject and relationships are intentionally interactive.
• 11. Context is emphasized.
• 12. Validity is very good. Reliability is questioned. Primary data is words.
• 13. Analysis uses constant comparatives, categorization, analytic induction, no statistics.
• 14. In qualitative research the researcher decides what to ignore but must support decisions with evidence. If the central questions relate to program progress, use qualitative research methods.

Data Analysis/Synthesis/Interpretation

Design	Research question		Process
Descriptive	What is occurring, how, where, and under what conditions?/		Individual analysis of elements/categories
Correlation	What is the relation between x and y?		Bi-measures per subject
Comparison of internal group interaction	Difference of groups in relations to variable x?		Assignment to groups based on subject variable.  Subjects come into the study with that characteristic
True experiment	What is the effect of x (the independent variable) on y (the dependent variable)?		random assignment to a treatment group (the independent variable) to assess the effect of the variable on the dependent variable
Scale		Characteristic
Nominal		Non-ordered category
Ordinal		Ordered
Interval		Order, equal intervals, and arbitrary zero point
Ratio		Order, equal intervals and real zero point
Measure (Central Tendency)		When used
Mode		nominal data, easy
Median		midpoint of a distribution/or distribution is skewed, easy
Mean		arithmetic average, frequently used, not precise
Weighted mean		overall mean of several groups of different sizes
Measure (Dispersion)		When used
Range		Difference point a to point z
Semi-interquartile range		roughly the middle 50% of distribution
Sum of squared deviations (SS)		Sum of standard deviations from norm
Variance		Variance within/between norm
Standard deviation		Where two thirds of the distribution lie
Scale		Symbol
Nominal		(phi coefficient)  (biserial r) (tetrachoric)
Ordinal		(spearman r) (kendall's tau or rank order correlation)
Interval or ratio		Pearson r Multiple R
When you want to
Predict a raw score, y = raw score X
Predict a standard score =standard score
Determine the slope of the regression line = r and the spreads of both distribution
Determine the slope of the regression line from a distribution of raw scores
Understand how the standard error of the estimate is related to unexplained variation
Obtain standard error of the estimate and you know N and r
Determine the interval that will includeYt

Qualitative Analysis

(Logic-inductive process: verbal), identify topics, Cluster topics into categories, Form categories into patterns, Make explanations from patterns, Use explanations to answer, Research question

Quantitative Analysis

(Statistical process: mathematical), Descriptive Statistics, Central tendency, Mean, Median, Mode, Variability, Range, Variance, Standard deviation, Correlation, Inferential Statistics: Standard error, Confidence limits, Test of significance , Of correlation, Of difference, between means

Measurement Model

Nominal: Different values indicate a difference in the characteristic being measured.

Ordinal: different values indicate a difference in relative amount of the characteristic being measured.

Interval: Equal intervals indicate equal differences in amount of the characteristic being measured.

Ratio: Ratios of variable values indicate proportional amounts of the characteristic being measured

Mathematical Model

Continuous: No boundaries between adjoining values.  Includes most interval and ratio variables that do not involve counting, and ordinal variables that are not rank orders.

Discrete: Clear boundaries between values.  Includes nominal variables, counting variables, and rank orders.

Measures of Frequency

frequency: the frequency of occurrence for each variable value

proportion, percent: the relative frequency of occurrence for each variable value

Measures of Central Tendency

mode: the most commonly occurring value

mean: an indicator of central tendency sensitive to the exact position of each score in the distribution

median: the middle score in a distribution

Measures of Variability

range: the difference between the lowest and highest scores

variance: the average squared deviation from the mean

standard deviation: an indicator of average deviation from mean in the same units of measure as the original scores

Measures of Linear Relationship

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient: the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

phi coefficient: a variant of the Pearson statistic for two dichotomous variables

point-biserial correlation coefficient; a variant of the Pearson statistic where one variable is dichotomous

Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient: a variant of the Pearson statistic for two rank-ordered  Variables

Simple regression: indicates the best estimate of one variable from the values of another

Parametric Tests of pattern Hypotheses

one-group z test: whether a population µ differs from some predefined value where σ is known

one-group t test: whether a population µ differs from some predefined value; knowing σ is Unnecessary

Nonparametric Tests of pattern Hypotheses

Binomial test: whether a population probability for a dichotomous variable differs from some predefined value

χ² goodness of fit test: whether a set of population probabilities differ from a set of predefined values

Parametric Tests of Relationship Hypotheses

dependent groups t test: whether a dichotomous variable is related to a quantitative variable in the population when groups defined by the dichotomous variable are dependent

independent groups t test: whether a dichotomous variable is related to a quantitative variable in the population when groups defined by the dichotomous variable are independent

t test for a correlation coefficient: whether the population ρxy between two variables differs from 0 one-way independent groups ANOVA: whether a discrete variable is related to a quantitative variable in the population when groups defined by the discrete variable are independent

one-way dependent groups ANOVA: whether a discrete variable is related to a quantitative variable in the population when groups defined by the discrete variable are dependent

two-way independent groups ANOVA: whether the combination of two discrete variables is related to an interval or ratio variable in the population when groups defined by the discrete variables are independent

Nonparametric Tests of Relationship Hypotheses

χ² test of independence: whether two variables demonstrate dependent outcomes in the population

Wilcoxon T test: whether a dichotomous variable is related to an ordinal, interval, or ratio variable in the population when groups defined by the dichotomous variable are dependent

Mann-Whitney U test: whether a dichotomous variable is related to an ordinal, interval, or ratio variable in the population when groups defined by the dichotomous variable are independent

Kruskal-Wallis H test: whether a discrete variable is related to an ordinal, interval, or ratio variable in the population when groups defined by the discrete variable are independent

Research findings are the summarize results of data analysis

The thesis format usually contains

Front Material

Title , Acknowledgements, Abstract

Body

Introduction, Review of literature, Procedures (or method), Findings (or results), Conclusions (or discussion)

Back Material

Bibliography, Appendixes

Research report conventions generally include

Format

Introduction, Relevant citations, Procedures followed, Results found, Interpretations

Writing Style

Descriptive style, Clear, plain, unemotional language, Third person, passive voice, Tentative rather than adamant, Consistency in format and meaning